The Creative Challenge – Visualize Major Research Methods

Deliverable #1 – Individually-Authored Visualization

Each group member should take a shot at visualization, perhaps even using different tools. Or, it’s fine at this stage to craft a visualization by hand so long as it’s readable.

Deliverable #2 – Collaboratively-Authored Visualization

Working collaboratively in groups of three, addressing an audience of your peers or other students being introduced to research methods, create

1. an information visualization, such as an infographic, illustration, or graphical story
2. Or, a video.

Your visualization or video should tell a story about the five major Methodological Communities introduced below. It should help your readers understand that these communities are defined in part by the problems they research and in part by the epistemological assumptions they hold about what knowledge is and how knowledge claims can be developed and tested. Additionally, your readers need to understand that an investigator’s rhetorical stance shapes the genres investigators use to report results, along with the persona, voice, tone, and citation styles they are expected to use.

Please note that because this is such a challenging story to tell, it may require multiple visualizations. Finally, note that this is a foundational exercise: it will inform all of the subsequent creative challenges.

Deliverable #3 – Reflection on Design, Group Processes, and AI

Working individually, write a 250 to 500 word reflection that reports on

1. what you learned about design as a result of collaborating on the project
   • what design or media choices would you make differently if you were to revise the group’s visualization(s) or video?
2. how you and your group used collaboration tools and AI to compose the project.

Overview of Tasks

1. Carefully read the following article. In class, use Perusal to socially annotate this assignment prompt.
2. Begin by familiarizing yourself with the genre of Infographics and Information Visualizations. Learn about the multiple ways to tell stories through visualizations by playing around with Ralph Lengler and Martin J. Eppler’s Periodic Table of Visualization Methods. If you haven’t engaged in design tasks in your other classes, review Design Principles – The Big Design Principles You Need to Know to Create Compelling Messages
3. Choose an infographic or visualization tool. Or, if you prefer, choose a video editing tool.

Recommended Tools

You are free to choose whatever tools your group members’ are most comfortable with to create your visualization(s) or video. Past students have reported they enjoyed Canva — and there’s a free version. That said, note the University provides the entire Adobe Cloud suite for free.

You may request access to Adobe Creative Cloud from this URL. You may need to access it in an incognito/private web browser window. When you reach the sign-in page, be sure to use your USF email address and then click on “Company or School Account.” You will then be redirected to sign in through USF single sign-on. Once signed in, you will be redirected to the Adobe website. The Adobe applications should be listed on the page, where it will state something that says “Install,” “Update,” “Open,” etc. You should then be able to access the software. If you have any trouble, contact help@usf.edu

Note that Adobe Firefly can create some good images that you can then edit to add in words. Adobe Express works well for videos.

Why Does this Creative Challenge Matter?

As discussed below, research communities approach knowledge creation in distinct ways, shaped not only by their unique topics but also by by their assumptions about what constitutes knowledge and how knowledge claims should be tested.

To produce credible research, professional and technical writers need to understand the epistemological assumptions, methods, and conventions that govern research practices in a research community. Because they are often collaborating with subject matter experts in other fields, they need strong rhetorical reasoning and rhetorical analysis skills to decipher how particular communities use methods to gather and interpret data.

So, the bottom line here is that for you to determine which research methods should be used to produce authoritative research for a particular research community, you need to understand the epistemological assumptions, values, and practices of the research community you are addressing — whether that’s a client in a business setting or the readers of a peer-reviewed academic journal.

Key Terms – Types of Research

Research seeks to answer questions, solve problems, and expand our understanding of the world. It can be defined in various ways:

Informal Research

As inquisitive humans, we engage in informal research every day, often without realizing it. When you search online to find the best restaurants, ask friends for recommendations, or browse social media for trends, you are conducting informal research.

Applied Research

Applied research focuses on practical problems, such as developing apps or services.

Formal Research

Formal research aims to expand human knowledge, contributing to the ongoing conversation of humankind. This kind of research is often systematic, following structured, socially codified methods and conventions about how to phrase questions, collect data, and interpret results. Both applied and basic research can be conducted systematically, especially when the aim is to produce knowledge that a research community is likely to consider seriously. This kind of systematic research, often published in peer-reviewed journals, is the focus of this assignment/course.

Epistemology

Epistemology refers to a branch of philosophy that investigates the nature, origins, and limits of human knowledge. Epistemologists are concerned with the fundamental questions about the nature, origin, methods, and limits of human knowledge. They strive to understand how we know what we know and what it means to know something.

In the context of the methodological communities outlined below, the following epistemological theories play a dominant role in shaping how investigators develop and test knowledge claims:

1. Dialogism
2. Rationalism 
3. Hermeneutics
4. Humanistic Epistemology
5. Pragmatism
6. Constructivism
7. Post-Positivism
8. Subjectivism
9. Positivism
10. Humanistic Epistemology

Dialogism

Dialogism refers to the idea that meaning  is created through dialogue and interaction between different voices or perspectives. In a broader sense, dialogism emphasizes the relational nature of knowledge and understanding, suggesting that truth emerges from the interplay of multiple viewpoints rather than from a single, monologic source.

Rationalism

Rationalism refers to the assumption that reason and intellectual discourse are primary sources of knowledge. Rationalism holds that certain truths can be grasped directly by the intellect, independent of sensory experience. It incorporates dialogism and hermeneutics, suggesting that meaning is created through logical reasoning, deductive analysis, and interpretive discourse within the scholarly conversation.

Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is the theory and methodology of interpretation, particularly the interpretation of texts. It asserts that knowledge is created through the dialectical process of reading, writing, and engaging in scholarly conversations. Hermeneutics focuses on understanding and interpreting canonical texts, ideas, and theories within their cultural and historical contexts, contributing to the ongoing conversation of humankind.

Humanistic Epistemology

This approach suggests that the universal can be found in the particular, asserting that individual experiences and specific cases can provide profound insights into the broader human condition. This perspective is often used in the analysis of literature and art, as well as in psychology and education through case studies and ethnographic methods.

Pragmatism

Pragmatists value practical solutions and the usefulness of knowledge. They advocate for a flexible approach to research, often integrating multiple methods to address complex research questions.

Constructivism

Constructivism refers to the epistemological perspective that asserts knowledge is actively constructed by individuals and groups, rather than simply transmitted or absorbed. Constructivists believe that meaning is created through human activity, social interaction, and engagement with the world.

Post-Positivism

This philosophy of knowledge acknowledges that our observations of reality are influenced by human perception and social processes. While still valuing empirical evidence and systematic inquiry, post-positivists recognize that complete objectivity is impossible and that all knowledge is provisional.

Subjectivism

Subjectivism asserts that knowledge, truth, and reality are fundamentally shaped by the individual’s perceptions, experiences, and interpretations, rather than existing as objective, mind-independent phenomena.

Interpretivism

Interpretivists argue that knowledge is subjective and constructed through social interactions and cultural contexts. They emphasize understanding the meanings and experiences of individuals within their specific contexts, recognizing that multiple interpretations can coexist.

Critical Theory

This approach applies theoretical lenses (e.g., a cultural, feminist, or Marxist lens) to interpret various texts and cultural artifacts, aiming to uncover deeper meanings, question dominant narratives, and reveal underlying power dynamics. While power analysis is a significant aspect, critical theory also encompasses other goals such as social critique, ideological critique, and understanding the broader cultural and historical context. See, e.g.,

Positivism

This position holds that the world is an orderly place with predictable cause-effect relationships. Knowledge is derived from sensory experience and empirical evidence, emphasizing objectivity and measurement. Positivists believe that it is possible to observe and describe reality objectively, without interference from the observer.

Summary of Major Research Methodologies

Below is a summary of the major research methods that inform contemporary knowledge-making practices:

1. Scholarly and Theoretical Research (aka Textual Research)
2. Design and Creative Methods
3. Empiricism
   1. Qualitative Methods
   2. Quantitative Methods
   3. Mixed Methods

Scholarly and Theoretical Research (aka Textual Research)

Roles: Scholars, Theorists, Historians, Philosophers, Literary Critics, Professional and Technical Communication Researchers

Focus: Writing, reading, and critiquing texts. Analyzing texts and their contexts, engaging in scholarly debates.

Approaches:

• Textual analysis
• Rhetorical analysis
• Content analysis
• Citation analysis
• Archival research
• Discourse analysis

Key Principles: Emphasizes interpretation, critique, and intellectual discourse. Knowledge is constructed through argumentation, analysis, and synthesis of ideas.

Origins: Rooted in classical traditions of philosophy, theology, and literary studies, evolved through Enlightenment and modern critical theory.

Epistemological Foundations: Rationalism, which asserts that reason and intellectual discourse are primary sources of knowledge. It incorporates dialogism and hermeneutics, suggesting that meaning is created through debate and interpretation within the scholarly conversation.

Genres: Research articles, books, critical essays, literature reviews

Relevance to PTC: PTC researchers often engage in scholarly research to analyze communication practices, develop theories of effective communication, and critique existing frameworks in the field.

Design and Creative Methods

Roles: Designers, Creatives, Entrepreneurs, Professional and Technical Writers, User Experience (UX) Researchers

Focus: Creating and improving products and processes

Approaches:

• Human-centered design
• Usability studies
• User experience research
• Instructional design
• Prototyping
• Wireframing
• Creative production
• Focus groups
• Participatory research methods
• Customer discovery

Key Principles: Prioritizes imagination, creativity, and user engagement. Emphasizes iterative processes, usability, and practical application in real-world contexts.

Origins: Emerged from industrial design, visual arts, and communication studies; influenced by the needs of creative industries and the demand for user-centered solutions.

Epistemological Foundations: Pragmatism and constructivism, asserting that knowledge is created through making, designing, and interacting with users. Professional and Technical Writers, as well as entrepreneurs, play a critical role in translating design thinking into practical outcomes.

Genres: Design documents, user manuals, process documentation, usability reports

Relevance to PTC: These methods are crucial for PTC professionals in creating user-friendly documentation, designing effective interfaces, and developing instructional materials.

Empiricism

Empirical research aims to generate knowledge through systematic observation, experimentation, and evidence-based data collection, focusing on measurable and observable phenomena to establish objective findings. Empirical methods may adopt a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approach.

Qualitative Methods

Roles: Social Scientists, Ethnographers, Cultural Anthropologists, Sociologists, Qualitative Researchers, PTC Practitioners

Focus: Understanding human experiences and social phenomena through detailed, contextualized narratives and stories

Approaches:

• Discourse/rhetorical analysis
• Participant observation
• Field methods
• Semi-structured or unstructured interviews
• Archival research
• Historiography
• Case studies
• Digital ethnography and netnography
• Thematic analysis

Key Principles: Focuses on understanding subjective experiences and the meanings individuals and groups assign to their actions. Emphasizes that knowledge is constructed and contextual rather than universal. Generalizability is viewed as often problematic due to the context-dependent nature of data.

Origins: Grounded in anthropology and sociology, qualitative methods evolved in response to the need for in-depth, contextualized understanding of human behavior and social phenomena.

Epistemological Foundations: Post-positivism and subjectivism, recognizing that knowledge is shaped by context, language, and the researcher’s perspective. Emphasizes the importance of reflexivity and the limits of objectivity.

Genres: Case studies, ethnographies, research articles, dissertations

Relevance to PTC: Qualitative methods help PTC professionals understand user needs, analyze communication contexts, and evaluate the effectiveness of communication strategies.

Quantitative Methods

Roles: Scientists, Statisticians, Data Scientists, Economists, Quantitative Researchers, PTC Analysts

Focus: Investigating measurable phenomena, establishing cause-effect relationships

Approaches:

• Machine learning
• Corpus linguistics
• Data science and big data analytics
• Data visualization
• Statistics/surveys
• Experimental design
• Artificial intelligence
• Computational social science
• Systematic reviews and meta-analyses
• Neuroimaging and physiological methods
• Hypothesis testing

Key Principles: Seeks to quantify variables and identify patterns through statistical analysis and controlled experiments.

Origins: Rooted in the natural sciences, quantitative methods have expanded into social sciences and data-driven disciplines, focusing on measurable and replicable results.

Epistemological Foundations: Positivism, which asserts that knowledge is best gained through observable, empirical evidence. Emphasizes sequential knowledge production and the importance of replication studies for validating findings.

Genres: Research articles, reports, conference papers

Relevance to PTC: Quantitative methods allow PTC professionals to measure communication effectiveness, analyze large-scale user data, and make data-driven decisions in content strategy.

Mixed Methods

Roles: Applied Researchers, UX Designers, Educational Technologists, Social Scientists, Professional and Technical Communicators

Focus: Providing a comprehensive understanding of research topics by combining multiple methods

Approaches:

• Usability studies
• User experience research
• Human-centered design
• Instructional design
• Convergent and embedded designs
• Data-driven and computational methods
• Longitudinal studies
• Concurrent or sequential mixed-methods designs
• Integrating surveys with interviews
• Combining statistical and thematic analysis

Key Principles: Mixed methods research seeks to combine the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative approaches, offering a more comprehensive understanding of complex research questions. This approach is particularly valuable when addressing multifaceted problems that require both numerical data and contextual understanding.

Origins: Mixed methods emerged from the recognition that both quantitative and qualitative data are valuable, particularly in applied and interdisciplinary fields.

Epistemological Foundations: This approach emphasizes the value of integrating different methods based on the research question, audience, and context. While pragmatism guides the selection of methods, mixed methods research also considers the epistemological tensions between positivism and post-positivism. Researchers must navigate these differences carefully, acknowledging that their audience may interpret findings differently based on their methodological preferences.

Genres: Research articles, mixed-methods studies, comprehensive reports

Relevance to PTC:
Mixed methods are particularly valuable for professional and technical communicators, as they often need to bridge the gap between quantitative data (e.g., user metrics, engagement statistics) and qualitative insights (e.g., user feedback, contextual inquiry). This approach allows for a more holistic understanding of communication challenges and user needs.

Methodological Considerations:
While mixed methods offer a comprehensive approach, researchers must be aware of the potential tensions between methodological purity and pragmatism. Professional and technical communicators should carefully consider how to integrate different data types without compromising the integrity of each method.

This may involve:

• Addressing potential conflicts between different epistemological stances
• Clearly defining the purpose and rationale for mixing methods
• Ensuring appropriate expertise in both quantitative and qualitative techniques
• Carefully planning data integration and interpretation stages

Research Communities – Methodological Communities

Research communities — such as scholars, ethnographers, scientists — develop different ways of conducting research because they face different problems and goals — and because they hold different epistemological assumptions about what knowledge is and how to test the authority of knowledge claims. For instance, scientists expect investigators to engage in objective experiments while scholars expect investigators to debate canonical texts and scholarly conversations.

If they want to be taken seriously, researchers must also be aware of the research methods and epistemological assumptions of the research communities they are addressing. Indeed, they must adopt the rhetorical stance, voice, tone, persona that others in their research community expect them to adopt. Moreover, Research Communities (aka Communities of Practice or Discourse Communities) are described as “communities” because they share expectations about data collection, interpretation, and citation.

Understanding these conventions is crucial for researchers to establish credibility and authority within their fields. That’s why any act of research begins with rhetorical analysis. Professional and technical writers question who their audience is and how their audience expects them to conduct research. So, e.g., if they want to publish an article at The Atlantic or a scientific paper at The New England Journal of Medicine, they need to read those publications and analyze the topics/conversations that interest that discourse community.

While there are many methodological communities, from a broad perspective there are five major methodologies.:

1. Scholars (e.g., Critics – Historians – Philosophers – Theorists)
2. Designers and Creatives (e.g., Usability Specialists, Designers, Entrepreneurs)
3. Qualitative Empiricists (e.g., Sociologists, Anthropologists, Psychologists, Educators)
4. Quantitative Empiricists (e.g., Scientists – Social Scientists)
5. Mixed Methods Empiricists

Scholars (e.g., Critics – Historians – Philosophers – Humanities Scholars – Theorists)

The core of scholarship is the belief that knowledge is created through reading, writing, and debating interpretations of texts. Scholars focus on texts and dialectic—the process of reasoning correctly—to generate, test, and defend the knowledge they produce. Unlike scientists, engineers, or social scientists who look outward for evidence, scholars look inward, relying on critical interpretation, logic, and rational thinking.

Scholars may be called Critics, Historians, Philosophers, Theorists. For contemporary scholars, anything that can be read or analyzed is a text, including movies, stock tickers, maps, etc. Scholars address topics that emerge from their everyday experiences as members of a culture. It’s also commonplace for scholars to read texts from particular theoretical perspectives, such as Capitalism, Marxism, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Deconstruction, Modernism, and Postmodernism.

Scholars use textual research methods—hermeneutics—to develop truth claims and assess the veracity of those claims. They believe that knowledge is created through sustained debate and dialogue—the never-ending, ongoing conversation of humankind. Scholars accomplish this by:

1. Defining and interpreting canonical texts, ideas, and theories within their field: Scholars identify key texts and theories that form the foundation of their discipline, examining how these works have shaped and continue to influence the field.
2. Closely reading and critically analyzing these texts: Through rhetorical reasoning and rhetorical analysis, scholars uncover deeper meanings, question assumptions, and explore the nuances of foundational texts.
3. Debating different interpretations and perspectives on the meaning and significance of the texts: Scholarly discourse involves lively debates and discussions where scholars present and defend their interpretations, often challenging and refining each other’s views.
4. Contributing new writings, research, and insights that build upon, challenge, or reframe existing scholarly work: Scholars create meaning by writing texts and looking inward to the power of logic and rational thinking. They depend on dialectic—the process of reasoning correctly—to generate, test, and defend the knowledge they produce. By producing original research and theoretical insights, they push the boundaries of current understanding.

Scholarship recognizes that there is no ultimate, fixed “truth” that can be proven once and for all. Rather, scholarly knowledge is inherently provisional and subject to further debate and reinterpretation. The goal of scholarship is not to uncover absolute facts, but to participate in the hermeneutical process of collectively defining, questioning, and refining our understanding through ongoing scholarly dialogue. Scholars see their work as part of a broader, evolving intellectual tradition and community.

Scholarly methods form the foundation of most research studies. Typically, as a first step, researchers—whether they are scientists, social scientists, humanists, or artists—begin any research project by engaging in systematic searches to ascertain what is known about a topic or problem. The difference between scholarly communities and those using empirical or mixed methods (quantitative or qualitative) is that scholars endeavor to create meaning by reading, writing, and critiquing texts.

Related Concepts: Information Literacy; Knowledge, Research; Research Methodology; The CRAAP Test.

Designers and Creatives (e.g., Usability Specialists, Designers, Entrepreneurs)

The core of the Developers and Designers community is grounded in the belief that knowledge is created through iterative problem-solving and user interaction. This group includes usability specialists, designers, and entrepreneurs who focus on creating functional and user-friendly products and solutions. Their work is characterized by a practical, hands-on approach to innovation, where continuous feedback and iteration are essential to refining and improving designs.

Developers and Designers may start with predefined problems or models of how they think the world works, similar to the formalist approach. For instance, like the work of Flower and Hayes in composition theory, they might develop initial theories or models and then empirically test them through user interaction and feedback. In contrast, they may also begin with a problem and then explore it through customer discovery interviews, which involves meeting with stakeholders and users to explore pain points and identify unmet needs. By balancing predefined models with exploratory research, Developers and Designers ensure that their solutions are both theoretically sound and practically effective.

The epistemological foundation of this community is constructivism and pragmatism. Constructivism asserts that knowledge is constructed through human activity and interaction, emphasizing the importance of context, social processes, and the active role of individuals in creating meaning. Pragmatism values practical solutions and the usefulness of knowledge, advocating for a flexible approach to research that integrates multiple methods to address complex problems.

Developers and Designers employ various research methods to gather data and insights from users. Prototyping involves creating preliminary models of a product to explore ideas and test functionality. Wireframing is used to design the basic structure of an interface before full-scale development. User testing engages actual users in interacting with prototypes to gather feedback on usability and design. Participatory design includes users in the design process, ensuring that their needs and preferences are integral to the final product. Iterative design processes involve repeated cycles of testing and refinement to enhance the product’s effectiveness and user experience. This community is highly audience-aware and ready to pivot based on user feedback and changing market conditions.

Qualitative Empiricists (e.g., Sociologists, Anthropologists, Psychologists, Educators)

The core of qualitative empiricism is grounded in the belief that knowledge is socially constructed and that human experiences and social phenomena can be understood through narratives and stories. Qualitative empiricists, such as sociologists, anthropologists, psychologists, and educators, explore human behavior and social interactions by conducting interviews, observing participants, and analyzing personal stories.

Qualitative researchers often begin by immersing themselves in the environment or context they are studying without a predefined research question. This approach, known as grounded theory, involves collecting data through observations and interactions, allowing research questions and hypotheses to emerge naturally from the data. This method contrasts with the hypothesis-testing approach of quantitative research, which begins with a specific research question or hypothesis.

The epistemological foundation of qualitative empiricism is interpretivism, which posits that knowledge is constructed through social interactions and cultural contexts. Interpretivists emphasize understanding the subjective meanings and experiences of individuals within their specific contexts, recognizing that multiple interpretations can coexist.

Qualitative researchers use methods such as ethnography, where they immerse themselves in the environment they are studying to observe and interact with participants. They conduct in-depth interviews to gather personal stories and insights, and use case studies to explore particular instances or phenomena in great detail. Surveys may also be used to collect qualitative data, focusing on open-ended questions that allow for detailed responses.

One of the ongoing debates within the qualitative research community is the extent to which their findings are generalizable. Some qualitative empiricists argue that the detailed, context-specific insights they gain can reveal broader patterns and trends applicable to other settings. Others maintain that the value of qualitative research lies in its depth and specificity, providing rich, nuanced understandings that are not meant to be generalized but rather to offer profound insights into particular contexts.

Qualitative empiricists form a diverse research community focused on understanding human experiences and social phenomena through narratives and stories. This community values the richness of narrative data and the depth of understanding it provides. Researchers within this community adhere to protocols for designing studies, collecting data, and interpreting findings in ways that honor the complexity and subjectivity of human experience.

Belonging to this research community requires an appreciation for the interpretive nature of qualitative research and a commitment to ethical considerations, such as ensuring the authenticity and credibility of participants’ voices. Researchers must be skilled in building rapport with participants, conducting in-depth interviews, and interpreting narrative data.

Quantitative Empiricists (e.g., Scientists – Social Scientists)

The core of quantitative empiricism is grounded in positivism, the belief that knowledge about the world can be obtained through systematic, empirical investigation. Quantitative empiricists, such as scientists and social scientists, rely on the scientific method to test and advance truth claims. This process involves formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on statistical evidence.

Quantitative researchers begin by identifying a research question or problem that can be measured and quantified. They develop a hypothesis, a testable prediction about the relationship between variables, and design experiments or surveys to collect numerical data. This data is analyzed using statistical methods to determine whether the hypothesis is supported or refuted.

The scientific method emphasizes objectivity and replicability. Researchers strive to minimize bias and ensure that their findings can be independently verified. This is achieved through rigorous experimental controls, standardized measurement techniques, and transparent reporting of methods and results.

However, the scientific method does not provide absolute proof of cause-effect relationships. Instead, it relies on probability and statistical analysis to assess the likelihood that observed results are not due to chance. Statistical techniques, such as hypothesis testing, regression analysis, and correlation coefficients, help researchers determine the strength and significance of their findings. For instance, a p-value assesses the probability that results occurred by chance; a lower p-value indicates stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.

Statistical analysis is a cornerstone of quantitative research, enabling researchers to make informed judgments about the validity of their hypotheses. By using probability and statistical methods, quantitative empiricists estimate the reliability and generalizability of their findings, recognizing that all knowledge claims are provisional and subject to further testing and refinement.

Quantitative research is widely used in both natural and social sciences to study human behavior, societal trends, and economic patterns. Social scientists employ surveys, longitudinal studies, and experiments to gather data on variables such as income, education, health, and social attitudes, using statistical techniques to analyze this data and draw conclusions about underlying factors.

Quantitative empiricists form a distinct research community characterized by shared epistemological foundations and methodological conventions. This community values empirical evidence, objectivity, and systematic investigation. Researchers adhere to established protocols for designing experiments, collecting data, and conducting statistical analyses. Their work is often published in peer-reviewed journals, ensuring rigorous standards for validity and reliability.

Belonging to this research community requires understanding the conventions and expectations that govern quantitative research, including familiarity with statistical techniques, the importance of replicability, and the ethical considerations involved in conducting empirical studies. By adhering to these standards, quantitative empiricists contribute to a collective body of knowledge that is respected and recognized by their peers.

What Are the Implications of Different Disciplinary Communities and Research Practices?

1. Immersion in Research Practices: Investigators must immerse themselves in the research practices of a discipline to understand acceptable and unacceptable ways of engaging in research. This includes searching the peer-reviewed literature in journals and books pertinent to the research question, identifying the flow of scholarly conversations to better understand canonical texts, and the current status of the scholarly conversation. Researchers might also use Google Scholar and standard Google searches to find related articles on platforms like Medium and Substack. Understanding these conventions helps ensure that one’s work is taken seriously within the methodological community.
2. Critical Literacy: Readers must critically evaluate the research they encounter, recognizing that researchers often misinterpret the data they gather or encounter problems with data collection and interpretation. This includes being aware of biases, issues with quoting other researchers, and the potential for manipulated or misleading results. For example, recent controversies over misinformation campaigns during elections highlight the importance of critically assessing research findings.
3. Writing: Writing within a methodological community requires adherence to specific conventions and standards. Failure to align with these standards will result in one’s work being dismissed or not taken seriously. Researchers must understand and follow the accepted ways of presenting and interpreting data to contribute meaningfully to their field.

Example – How Would these Methodological Communities Research AI and Human Agency?

To make all of the above less abstract, below is an example of how different research communities might investigation ways Generative AI Tools Impinge on Human Agency:

1. Scholars:
   • Research Question: “What is the future of human agency? How are generative artificial intelligence (GAI) tools remediating academic integrity, authorship, learning, interpretation/reading, language, and composing?”
   • Epistemological Foundation: Hermeneutics, Post Positivism, Anecdotal Knowledge, Rhetorical Knowledge
   • Methodology:
     • Literature Search: Search peer-reviewed literature in journals and books pertinent to this research question. Identify the flow of scholarly conversations to understand canonical texts and the current status of the conversation.
     • Supplementary Searches: Use Google Scholar and standard Google searches to find related articles on platforms like Medium and Substack.
     • Analytical Methods: Archival Research, Rhetorical Reasoning, Rhetorical Analysis, Discourse Analysis, Genre Analysis
   • Interpretation: Scholarly methods can never settle a matter once and for all; all questions remain open for continued debate. They provide a theoretical framework that situates AI within the broader discourse on human agency, offering insights into potential philosophical shifts.
2. Designers:
   • Research Question: “How can AI interfaces be designed to enhance rather than diminish human agency?”
   • Epistemological Foundation: Constructivism, Interpretivism
   • Methodology:
     • Prototyping and Iterative Testing: Create prototypes of AI interfaces and conduct usability testing to evaluate how these designs affect users’ sense of control and empowerment.
     • Customer Discovery Interviews: Engage in interviews to gather insights into user needs and preferences.
   • Interpretation: Designers use feedback from users to refine their designs, aiming to create AI tools that support and enhance human agency through thoughtful design choices.
3. Qualitative Empiricists:
   • Research Question: “What is the future of human agency? How are generative artificial intelligence (GAI) tools remediating academic integrity, authorship, learning, interpretation/reading, language, and composing?”
   • Epistemological Foundation: Positivism, Post Positivism
   • Methodology:
     • Ethnography: Conduct ethnographic studies to gather detailed personal accounts of individuals’ experiences with AI.
     • Interviews and Focus Groups: Collect narratives by interviewing AI experts, as seen in the research by Anderson and Rainie (2023).
   • Interpretation: Qualitative methods emphasize the depth and complexity of human experience. These methods provide a rich, contextualized understanding of how people feel about AI’s impact on their autonomy, highlighting subjective experiences and concerns.
4. Quantitative Empiricists
   • Research Question: “What is the future of human agency? What is the measurable impact of AI on employment? What careers will be eliminated, and what is the likely timeline for specific careers?”
   • Epistemological Foundation: Positivism
   • Methodology:
     • Experimental Methods: Design experiments to measure changes in decision-making processes when individuals use AI tools.
     • Data Collection: Use eye-tracking software to measure time on task during composing or develop questionnaires, as demonstrated in Barrett and Pack (2023).
   • Interpretation: Science can never determine anything with absolute certainty; findings are always measured against the backdrop of statistics and probability. They use statistical analysis to determine if there is a significant impact of AI on employment, providing numerical evidence to support their findings.
5. Mixed Methods Researchers:
   • Research Question: “What are the combined impacts of AI on human agency when considering both quantitative and qualitative data?”
   • Epistemological Foundation: Integration of multiple epistemological approaches
   • Methodology:
     • Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Methods: Combine experimental data with ethnographic and interview data.
   • Interpretation: Mixed methods leverage the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to offer a more robust conclusion. This triangulation provides a holistic view of AI’s effects on human agency.