[Navigational Note: The article below provides a brief summary of major research methods. For more detailed analysis of these methods, see the following articles:
What Are Research Methods?
Research methods are the tools, techniques, protocols, and strategies that investigators and methodological communities use to conduct research. The most important esearch methods are summarized below.
Research methods are a social, rhetorical construct. Different academic and professional communities—e.g., mathematics, psychology, physics, engineering, or business—employ unique research methods. A primary focus of training in academic and professional disciplines concerns learning how to use disciplinary-specific methods, tools, protocols, and processes for gathering and assessing information. For instance, an anthropologist’s account of kinship patterns in a tribe of Native Americans bears almost no resemblance to a cognitive psychologist’s investigation of sensory responses to light stimuli.
Whether research results, truth claims, are understood or judged to be valid or convincing depends to a great extent on whether the investigator follows the tacit and explicit guidelines a discourse community considers appropriate for a particular research question and rhetorical situation. This is why rhetorical reasoning (especially audience awareness) plays such a formative role in the selection of research methods.
Research methods are not necessarily paired with particular methodologies, epistemological values, such as the rejection of positivism. Rather, methodological communities may employ the same methods yet hold contrary assumptions about the sort of knowledge those methods produce. For instance, a researcher could argue a case study creates universal knowledge—insights that transcend individuals, cultures, and historical periods. For instance, based on his therapy notes, Freud theorized we all have an id, ego, and superego. Jung suggested we all play archetypal roles including the hero, the shadow, the anima and animus. In contrast, another researcher could conduct a case study with similar subjects and yet argue the insights gleaned from the research do not illustrate universal knowledge—i.e., the results are stories, narratives, that provide robust details about the subjects interviewed . . . and nothing more.
Research Methods are constantly changing in response to new technologies. Eager to develop new knowledge or test knowledge claims, investigators experiment with new methods as technologies evolve. For example, the internet enables investigators to conduct worldwide research with online survey tools and video conferencing tools. Businesses are working with big data and analytics to commercialize data about consumers habits as they traverse the internet or purchase items in the world. Machine learning theorists are looking at how people write to develop artificial intelligence so technologies like Amazon’s Alexa can speak with humans.
Research Methods are evolving in response to new cultural mores. Communities of practice reconsider ethical principles and engage in dialectics regarding best practices. For example, capturing gorillas and studying them in cages might have been considered good research in the 1920s. The work of later researchers like Dian Fossey, however, demonstrated how animals might be better understood in their natural environment. Today, research based on observations of wild animals in captivity would gain little support or interest.
Consumers of research studies are wise to evaluate research methods. As a consumer of research, you are wise to critically evaluate a researcher’s methods. You would, for example, take your doctor’s diagnosis of a life-threatening disease more seriously than a fortune teller’s prediction of an early death. What distinguishes a physician’s prognosis from a fortune teller’s prophecy are research methods: the doctor may be looking at the results of your physical, blood work, x rays, CT Scans, MRI, or family history, whereas the fortune teller may be gazing into a crystal ball, pendulum, Tarot cars, or astrological charts.
Why Does An Understanding of Research Methods Matter?
If you are doing more than writing an essay that relies on sources, then you can benefit from understanding why there are different research methods.
- Learn more about how academic and professional researchers employ diverse research methods.
- Understand the philosophical assumptions that inform researchers in different disciplines.
Academic disciplines—for example, mathematics, psychology, physics, engineering, or business—have different ways of conducting and evaluating research. An anthropologist’s account of kinship patterns in a tribe of Native Americans bears almost no resemblance to a cognitive psychologist’s investigation of sensory responses to light stimuli. Even within a particular academic discipline, researchers may disagree over what makes good research. Different researchers employ different research methodologies because they have opposing, sometimes contradictory ideas, about what constitutes a valid knowledge claim. Not only do people disagree about appropriate methods of research, but their ideas may change over time. Conceptions about knowledge, available technologies, and research practices influence each other and change constantly. For example, capturing gorillas and studying them in cages might have been considered good research in the 1920s. The work of later researchers like Dian Fossey, however, demonstrated how animals might be better understood in their natural environment. Today, research based on observations of wild animals in captivity would gain little support or interest.
The Creatives (Creative Methods)
Roles
- The Creatives may also be known as visionaries, artists, innovators, novelists, poets.
Focus
- Exploring meaning through imagination, intuition, and personal reflection
- Generating new ideas and composing narratives or artistic content
Approaches
- Brainstorming & Ideation
- Generative & Expressive Writing
- Artistic Inquiry
- Speculative & Experimental Methods
Key Principles
- Imagination fuels the creation of original ideas and interpretations
- Subjectivity & Context shape meaning
- Iteration refines creative works
Origins
- Rooted in the humanities, literary studies, visual arts, music, and creative industries
Epistemological Foundations
- Embodied Cognition – Asserts thought is influenced by bodily experience and sensory engagement
- Constructivism – Asserts that knowledge is actively created rather than discovered
- Pragmatism – Values the process of meaning-making through artistic and communicative practices
- Humanistic Epistemology – Believes personal or cultural narratives reveal universal themes—such as morality, identity, or creativity—that resonate widely, even if they defy strict generalization.
Genres
- Poetry, fiction, creative nonfiction, screenplays, speculative narratives, performance art
Relevance for Inquiry and Expression
- Enables deep personal engagement and challenges dominant narratives
The Designers (Design Research Methods)
Roles
- The Designers may also be known as strategists, innovators, and usability experts.
Focus
- Investigating and improving the design of products, services, and communication strategies
Approaches
- Usability Testing
- User Experience (UX) Research
- Human-Centered Design
- Iterative Prototyping
- Design Thinking
Key Principles
- User-Centered – Prioritizes human needs and interactions
- Iterative Development – Encourages rapid testing and refinement
- Contextual Research – Focuses on real-world applications
Origins
- Rooted in industrial design, cognitive psychology, and human-computer interaction
Epistemological Foundations
- Pragmatism – Values functional solutions that address real-world needs
- Constructivism – Asserts that knowledge is actively created rather than discovered
Genres
- Usability reports, design research studies, UX case studies
Relevance for PTC
- Helps professionals create user-friendly communication materials and digital interfaces
The Empiricists (Empirical Research Methods)
Roles
- The Empiricists may also be known as data analysts, researchers, and experimental scientists.
Focus
- Generating knowledge through systematic observation, experimentation, and evidence-based data collection
Approaches
- Machine learning
- Corpus linguistics
- Data science
- Data visualization
- Experimental design
Key Principles
- Seeks to quantify variables and identify patterns through statistical analysis and controlled experiments
Origins
- Rooted in the natural sciences and expanded into data-driven disciplines
Epistemological Foundations
- Positivism – Asserts that knowledge is best gained through observable, empirical evidence
Genres
- Research articles, reports, conference papers
Relevance for PTC
- Enables measurement of communication effectiveness and data-driven decision-making
The Interpreters (Qualitative Research Methods)
Roles
- The Interpreters may also be known as ethnographers, social scientists, UX researchers, and human-centered researchers.
Focus
- Exploring human experiences and meaning-making through rich, contextual analysis
Approaches
- Ethnography & Participant Observation
- Interviews & Focus Groups
- Discourse & Rhetorical Analysis
- Usability Studies & Human-Centered Research
Key Principles
- Context matters in shaping knowledge
- Interpretation is central to analysis
Origins
- Rooted in anthropology, sociology, and human-computer interaction
Epistemological Foundations
- Post-Positivism
- Constructivism – Emphasizes socially constructed knowledge
Genres
- Case studies, ethnographies, usability reports, discourse analyses
Relevance for PTC
- Ensures user-friendly design and effective audience communication
The Scientists (Quantitative Research Methods)
Roles
- The Scientists may also be known as data scientists, statisticians, social scientists, and engineers.
Focus
- Investigating measurable phenomena and establishing cause-effect relationships through statistical analysis
Approaches
- Surveys
- Statistical modeling
- Experimental research
- Data mining
Key Principles
- Seeks generalizable, replicable findings through rigorous statistical methods
Origins
- Rooted in mathematics and the natural sciences
Epistemological Foundations
- Positivism – Focuses on empirical, measurable observations
Genres
- Research papers, statistical reports
Relevance for PTC
- Helps professionals analyze trends, predict outcomes, and optimize strategies
The Integrators (Mixed Research Methods)
Roles
- The Integrators may also be known as applied researchers, UX designers, educational technologists, and PTC professionals.
Focus
- Combining multiple methods for a comprehensive understanding of research topics
Approaches
- Convergent and embedded designs
- Integrating surveys with interviews
- Combining statistical and thematic analysis
Key Principles
- Pragmatic approach to research selection
Origins
- Emerged from interdisciplinary research and applied studies
Epistemological Foundations
- Pragmatism – Emphasizes methodological flexibility
Genres
- Mixed-methods studies, comprehensive reports
Relevance for PTC
- Bridges quantitative data with qualitative insights for better communication strategies
The Scholars (Scholarly Research Methods)
Roles
- The Scholars may also be known as researchers, analysts, academic writers, and critics.
Focus
- Writing, reading, and critiquing texts
- Analyzing texts and their contexts
- Engaging in scholarly debates
Approaches
- Textual analysis
- Rhetorical analysis
- Content analysis
- Citation analysis
- Archival research
- Discourse analysis
Key Principles
- Emphasizes interpretation, critique, and intellectual discourse
Origins
- Grounded in rationalism, which asserts that reason and intellectual discourse are primary sources of knowledge
Epistemological Foundations
- Rationalism & Hermeneutics – Emphasizes interpretation and critical analysis
Genres
- Research articles, books, critical essays, literature reviews
Relevance for PTC
- Used to analyze communication practices, develop theories, and critique existing frameworks
